COHORT: FIGHTING FOR ROME
Brought to you by Belgarath

LOADING INSTRUCTIONS 

LOADING-AMIGA 
To load the game, insert the game disk into your Amiga’s disk 
drive and then switch on your computer. The game will load   auto- 
matically. 

LOADING-ATARI ST 
Insert the game disk into your disk drive, then switch on your 
computer. Then double-click on the COHORT.PRG   file to load the 
game. 

IBM PC VERSION 
LOADING INSTRUCTIONS (FLOPPY DISK) 
Insert your DOS, disk into Drive A: and turn on the power to your 
computer. At the A:\ prompt, replace your DOS disk with the 
appropriate Fighting for Rome disk and type: COHORT [ENTER]. 

HARD DISK INSTALLATION 
At the  C:\ prompt, switch to your  A:  or  B:  drive and type INSTALL 
[ENTER]. This installation will create a  sub-directory on your  C: 
drive, named COHORT. To start the game once it is installed on 
your C: drive,  type  the following: 

CD\COHORT  [ENTER] 
COHORT [ENTER] 

TUTORIAL     
Introduction    
Fighting  for Rome is a  wargame. Unlike  many other wargames, 
however, it is extremely  easy  to learn and play. Newcomers to 
computer wargaming may  find this tutorial helpful: it guides the 
player through the steps needed, to start a game. 
We recommend people initially start a game and just play around 
to accustom themselves to  the icon control system. You can easily 
restart the game whenever you feel ready to do so. This tutorial's 
goal is just to get you started with a game. You will still need to 
consult the instructions in order to  fill out your knowledge of  the  
system.        

  
To get straight into the battle, click on the Impressions logo on
the  title  screen and you will be put into the “ARCADE MODE”. 
This means that the computer will automatically select two
armies and, a, scenario,  and will  automatically   set both armies 
marching towards each other. Just join in  and   give your side 
orders when you want to or sit back and watch the fun! 

Selecting a Battle 
First, load the game and click on your countries flag. 
You must then decide which  battle  to  play. This means selecting 
a Terrain and the composition of both your own army and your 
opponents army. 

The  first  screen you are presented with  after  selecting clicking on 
the US flag is the Terrain Select screen.  To choose a  Terrain, 
simply click  firmly on the  left mouse button when the mouse 
pointer is over the type of terrain you wish to choose. The com- 
puter will then move on to the Army Select screen, and will wait 
for you to choose your own army. 

Although you can  define  your own army, it is simplest to  start  off 
by choosing one of the armies supplied. To  do this,  simply  click 
on one of the top   row  of yellow numbers (1 to  8)  running horizon- 
tally across the screen. Underneath each army is the  breakdown 
of how many of each type  of soldier that  army contains.  You 
must now repeat the same process to select your opponents 
army. 

Preparing  Your Army For Battle 
You could simply click on the icon at the right hand comer of the 
screen (the yellow arrow) and  the battle would commence. If you 
do this, the row of icons will vanish,  and after a while, the oppos- 
ing army will start  moving in to attack you. You can scroll around 
the scene by moving the mouse pointer (in the scroll  box  at the 
bottom left hand comer of the screen) in the direction that you 
wish to scroll. To re-enter the command mode, simply click  firmly 
on the  left  mouse button., You  will  probably wish, to move some of 
your units  first,  to produce your own chosen formation and tac- 
tics.       
Clicking on  the map  icon (at  the bottom of the, screen) will bring 
up the strategic map. A flag represents every  unit on the field. 
Your units are blue, the enemy units red. This map is very use- 
ful: it shows you at a glance where all your units, and all the 
enemy units, are, enabling you to work out where you would like
to move units to. To return to the command mode from the map,
simply click on the yellow arrow icon. 

To move some of your units, click on the flag on the strategic map 
which represents the unit you would like to move. This will take 
you   to that part  of the terrain, where you should see your selected 
unit.  Click on the base of this unit and you should see the Icon 
Panel appear at the bottom of the screen with your unit in the
middle of the panel. Click on the square on this control panel 
which shows your unit and a Unit Command Panel. should 
appear on screen. Now click on the single  
figure  at the top right 
hand comer of the Unit Command Panel and then again on the 
terrain. 

You have just instructed the unit and its group to move towards 
the  spot you clicked on. Click on the yellow arrow on the bottom 
control panel and you will see your units move towards that spot. 

Playing the Game 
Click on the yellow arrow on  the  control panel at the bottom of 
the screen to start the battle. The enemy will begin to move Into 
formation very soon and, if unprovoked by your forces, will attack 
you after a short while. Your troops will all turn and fight  auto- 
matically  if they  come Into contact with any enemy units. At any  
time,  you can bring up the control panel again to give more com- 
mands to your army simply by clicking  firmly  the left mouse but- 
ton. Clicking on the red cross icon on the control panel makes 
the Statistics Panel appear, showing details of both sides’ casual-
ties so far. 

When you are ready to restart  the  game, simply click on the disk 
icon on the control panel. Then click on the yellow arrow at the 
bottom of the disk panel which will appear on-screen. Then click 
on the word "HERE" at  the  top of the panel. You will now be able 
to restart the game.

INSTRUCTIONS 
I. THE FORCES  -  REPRESENTATION 
You are designated the “Blue” army, the Opposition the “Red.” 
Each infantry figure (a unit) represents just under 100 men, while
the  cavalry  figures  each represent 50 soldiers. 

The battle takes place in “real time”  -  you give your orders to the 
men, and away the battle goes until you tell it to stop. You can
then issue further commands, and let the battle recommence.
There are no “turns”, you can give as many (or as  few)  orders as 
you wish. 

The battlefield is approximately one mile wide by one third of a 
mile high   -  plenty of room for outflanking maneuvers.

II. UNIT TYPES 
There are seven different types of troop units: 

LIGHT  CAVALRY  Men unarmored on unprotected horses 
                with bows, the fastest troops available. 
MEDIUM  CAVALRY Men in rawhide/light armor with
                unprotected horses. 
HEAVY CAVALRY   Men in armor with armored horses. 
ARCHERS         Unarmored light infantry with bows. 
LIGHT INFANTRY  Unarmored light infantry with slings. 
MEDIUM INFANTRY Men in a light armor covering only part of
                the body. 
HEAVY INFANTRY  Men in heavy armor. The strongest troops
                available, but also the least mobile. 

III. COMMANDING GROUPS 
For  ease  of play, you can control either individual units or groups 
of 8 units at a time. All units in a group must be of the same type. 
The maximum number  of groups allowed per army  is 12:  the 
minimum is 6. An army can therefore represent   anywhere 
between 3,000 and  10,000 men,  depending on its composition. 

You can give orders to each unit individually (unit mode) or to 
each group (group mode). In group mode, any order given to a unit
is automatically passed onto its fellow group members 

IV.  TERRAIN 
Click on the terrain on which you  wish  the battle to take place. 
There are 4 different terrains: 

OPEN FIELD       Fairly open  area for battle bordered by 
                 woods on the northwestern and  south- 
                 eastern corners. 
THE BRIDGE       An east west river dominates the  battle- 
                 field with a single bridge. The river can be 
                 waded. 
CLIFF DEFENSE    The northern edge is a  cliff  which leads to 
                 the sea. Any unit going over the cliff is 
                 “lost.” 
HILL TERRAIN     A hilly terrain to hamper fast moving 
                 cavalry breaks up the battlefield. 

V. ARMY COMPOSITION 
You can select one of  eight  pre-defined  armies by clicking on one 
of the numbers running  across the top of the screen. You can 
also take a randomly selected army or create your own army. To 
set up your own army composition, click on the  “+” or  "-" icons for 
each type of unit. Note  that  this  selects “groups” of units: a figure 
of 4 for medium infantry, for example, means that your army will
include four groups (of eight units each) of medium infantry. You 
cannot have more than 8 groups of any unit type, or of any of the
following combinations of   unit: 

Light  Infantry  and Archers 
Medium and Heavy  Infantry 
Medium and Heavy Cavalry 

An army must have at least 6 groups but no more than 12. You 
must also select your opponent’s army using the same three 
options. 

The different terrain options and variable army composition mean   
that you can create a wide variety of  conflicts  of varying  difficulty. 
To start you off, 20 scenarios are provided (see separate Scenario 
Cards). 

VI. COMMANDING   TROOPS 
You can only give orders  while  the battle is paused. When you 
first  start the game, the battle is paused until you click on the 
“continue” arrow. During battle, simply click  firmly  on the  right 
mouse button to freeze the action and bring the control panel 
back onto the screen. 

General Control panel

There are  three  important panels used for controlling your men: 
1) the General Control panel (the bottom portion of the screen), 
2) the  Unit Command panel (accessed  from  the General Control 
panel) and 3) the Extended Unit Command panel (accessed from
the Unit Command panel).


VII. INDIVIDUAL & GROUP COMMAND MODES
Select whether you wish to be in unit or group mode by clicking
on the second icon from the left. A picture Of a single soldier indicates
unit mode, while a row of soldiers signifies group mode. In
group mode, any orders you give to one member of the group will
be followed by the entire group. In individual mode, it will be just
the individual unit which executes each order.

VIII. SELECTING UNITS FOR ORDERS
Select which unit/group you wish to give an order to by clicking
on it. Clicking on the up and down arrows on the left and right of
the control panel moves through your army, unit by unit, using
each unit’s identification number.

A red arrow will point at the piece currently selected and the relevant
figure will appear in the central square of the control panel.
Click on this central square to bring up the Unit Command
panel.

IX. ALTERING DIRECTION
Click on the yellow arrows around the central square to rotate the
piece to face a different direction.

X. MOVING TROOPS
There are two ways of moving troops:

a. SHORT DISTANCE 
Click on one of the three icons at the right
hand side of the command panel. The single
figure represents Move at a March. The
two figures below it indicate Move at a
Run, while the three figures below that
indicate Charge! Having selected the
speed by clicking on one of these choices,
the panel will disappear, revealing a larger
area of the battlefield. Move the mouse
pointer to where you want the unit or
group to move to and then click the right
mouse button.

b. LONG DISTANCE 
Click on the Centurion icon (the one with
a raised sword) to bring up the Extended
Unit Command panel. This includes 4
directional arrows; simply click on one to
get the group to march in that direction.


XI. HALTING MOVEMENT
The troops will stop automatically if they:
a. Arrive at or near their target as set by the SHORT move command,
OR
b. Get close to the edge of the battlefield if sent by a LONG move,
command, OR
c. Meet an enemy group, which they will automatically engage.

You can also halt movement by clicking on the Stand icon (on the
top left of the control panel).

XII. TROOP FORMATIONS
These commands will effect the entire group whether you are in
group mode or not. The piece under command will form the
upper left hand part of the formation. For instance, with the single
horizontal line command, the other units in the group will line
up to the right of it.
The formations available from the Command and Extended Unit
Command (accessed via the centurion) panels are:

UNIT COMMAND PANEL,
a. single row-horizontal line
b. single row-vertical line

EXTENDED UNIT COMMAND PANEL
a. double row -- horizontal line
b. double row - vertical line
c. square


Once in these formations, issuing move commands in group
mode will get the groups to travel in  these formations.  
Disarray, however, can occur if you pass through other groups or over  diffi- 
cult terrain.  

XIII.  TROOP ATTRIBUTES 
Each  unit  has five attributes which are represented by icons on 
the bottom of the Unit Command panel. Going   from  left to right, 
they are: Attack Strength, Defense, Strength, Missile   Power, 
Morale and Number of Men (in the unit). All attributes are rated 
between  1 (low) and 99  (high). By  clicking on an attribute icon, 
the gauge on the right hand side of the Unit Command panel will 
indicate that attribute’s current level. 

To help with  individual  recognition,  each  unit has its own unique 
I unit number which appears next to the unit type on the Control 
panel. This appears, though, only if you are in the unit mode. If
you are in group mode, the number of the group that the unit 
belongs to   is displayed. 
 
XIV.  MORALE 
Morale is extremely important. It  will  ‘rise if you’re doing well  and 
fall if you’re in trouble. The lower your morale, the greater the 
chance that your unit  will  rout. That is, run off the battlefield tak- 
ing no further part in the  conflict.  You cannot issue orders to 
routed  units. 

XV.  EFFECT OF TERRAIN 
Terrain should play a very important part in your tactics. 

Terrain Type      Movement Effect             Battle Effect 

Trees/Forest      Reduces speed to walk.     Reduces effectiveness of Cavalry. 
Stones/Rocks      Reduces speed to walk.     Reduces  effectiveness of Cavalry. 
River             Passable. but at a walk.   Reduces attack and defense attributes. 
Cliff             Units  going  over the top None. 
                  will take no further part     
                  in the battle. 
Other  Units      Passable, but formation    None. 
                  is likely to be disrupted. 
Hills             Reduces speed.             Units on higher ground have increased
                                             attack and. defense attributes. 

XVI. RALLYING TROOPS
Units at half strength can be combined   with  adjacent units of the 
same type  which  are in a similar predicament. To do this, click on 
the Combine icon on the Unit Command panel (the third icon on the left, in the middle). 
The unit  currently  under command will combine with any or all  adjacent units.  
Note: if combining the units results in the number of  men in  the new unit being over 99, 
the new unit will not be formed. 

XVII. HAND TO HAND COMBAT
When  units from opposing forces, are  adjacent to one another, 
hand to hand combat will commence. It will continue until either
one of the units: 
a. retreats, OR 
b. routs, OR
c. is wiped out (i.e. the  number  of men is less than  1!) 

Success depends on a combination of factors: the advancing
units attack strength  against  the opposition’s defense strength, 
their relative morales, the number of men remaining in each unit
and the terrain they are standing on. In addition, out-numbering
your opponent by having more than 1 unit adjacent to the
attacked unit greatly enhances your chance of victory.

XVIII. MISSILES
Light infantry, light cavalry and archers all have the, capability of
firing missiles. In Fighting for Rome missile firing is automated.
Just select your target and your units will continue firing. They
reload automatically until they are wiped out, routed or engaged
in hand to hand combat.

To set up a target bring up the Unit Command panel and click
on the archer icon at the top. A map of the battlefield will appear
with red (enemy) and blue (yours) flags denoting where the units
are. A red pointer shows where your currently selected unit is.
Just move the white pointer over the base of the red flags you
wish to fire at and click! Your units whole group will aim at the
group you've targeted. They will fire at the opposing group even if
they move away. To aim at a different target, just repeat the process.

How effective your shooting is depends on your missile power
(archers are best), how far away from the target you are, how
much armor the target has (lightly armored units are effected the
most) and how many men are left in your unit.


XIX. FIELD OF VIEW
By clicking on the map icon on the main panel, the battlefield will
appear with blue and red flags denoting unit positions. This
enables you to picture the overall pattern of the battle and adjust
your tactics as necessary. You can zoom into the battle by moving
the pointer over the area you wish to see and clicking.

In this ‘mom mode”, the attributes section of the Unit Command
panel will appear. Click on any of t h e attributes and signs will
appear over all your units giving their current value for that
attribute. This enables you to see how your troops are standing
up to the fight, where your weaknesses are and whether you need
to rally any of them.

Additionally, rather than exiting by clicking on the yellow arrow,
click on one of your units and when you return to the main
panel, that piece will be the one under command.

HINT: When your army becomes spread out, using this method is
the quickest, way of regaining control of your troops.

XX. BATTLE MODE
Once you have issued all of your commands, clicking on the yellow
arrow on the main panel will put you in Battle Mode, Troops
will move, fights will take place, missiles will fire - the whole battle
will occur before your very eyes!

You can scroll around the battlefield by moving the mouse pointer.
in the Scroll Box in the direction that, you wish the display to
move. Coordinates are displayed in the top left hand comer so
you can keep track of where you are. The first digit is the horizontal
(X) distance. the second vertical (Y). (0,0 is the top left comer
of the map).

At any stage while watching the battle progress, you can bring up
the control panel. For example, to issue new orders or monitor
casualties, simply click firmly on the left mouse button and the
control panel will appear.

XXI. STATISTICS
Clicking on the red cross icon on t h e control panel will bring up
the statistics screen. You are told the number of men alive, routed
and dead for each of the armies. (The top icon represents living
units, the middle one, represents routed units, the bottom one
units wiped out). If you are in group, mode the statistics are in
units; If you are in unit, mode, the figures are numbers of men.

XXII. QUICK MODE
Clicking on the “egg-timer” icon moves you Into “Fast-Forward-
Battle” mode. The battle continues and you are kept up to date
about casualties but the fight proceeds at a faster pace. This
enables you to play through a scenario quickly. If time is short,
just issue ‘commands, and go into,,  this  mode; when casualties 
start happening, or you’re starting to lose - exit and alter your 
tactics! To exit this mode,  just click  the, mouse. 

XXIII. RESTART 

To  restart  a game at any time during a battle, click on  the  disk 
icon (on  the  control panel) and then  the  yellow arrows on  the  Disk 
Panel. You will then be given  the option to exit  the scenario and 
restart the simulation. Unless you’ve saved  the  game to disk 
already, the current game in  progress will  be lost. 

XXIV. SAVING   AND  LOADING GAMES 
Just click on the disk icon on  the  control panel and follow  the 
instructions. Make sure you  have a formatted disk available  first. 

XXV. TYPES OF  SOLDIER UNITS 
As a guide for the newcomer, here is a brief analysis, of the 
strengths/weaknesses of, the units under your command and 
some tips as to how you might use them.

LIGHT INFANTRY 
Being the, fastest foot soldier and with a
missile capability, this force is ideal for 
harassing the  enemy and outmaneuver- 
ing  the slower, more heavily armored 
units. Before engaging heavy or medium 
troops, try  softening  them up with bit and 
run tactics  - hit them  with a few volleys, 
retreat, then  repeat the  process.

MEDIUM INFANTRY 
Good general purpose unit: no missile
capability, but  sufficiently  strong to  sur- 
vive  conflict with most troops.

HEAVY INFANTRY
The  strongest and most effective unit  - 
but also the slowest and with no missile
capability. Could be susceptible to “bit 
and run” attacks, so it is sensible to use a 
combination of lighter forces as well, to
guard against the enemy exploiting this 
weakness. 

ARCHERS 
Should avoid hand to hand combat. Place 
them behind some armored  infantry  and 
use them to weaken the enemy. 

LIGHT CAVALRY 
Like light  infantry,  but with greater speed 
and inferior combat ability.

MEDIUM CAVALRY 
Good for slowing the advance of the 
enemy or out-flanking them. 

HEAVY CAVALRY 
Strong  enough  to be used as shock, band 
to hand combat troops. 

XXVI. OBJECTIVES-GAME END 
Your objective in   Fighting  for Rome will vary depending upon 
which scenario you play. The scenario cards provided give details
of each objective. while, for your own custom-built scenarios you 
must set your own objectives. Typically,  these objectives will con- 
sist of holding ground, generally a bridge or cliff-top position, or 
taking opposing positions and defeating enemy armies. 

The game  ends  when the  first  of the, following conditions, are met: 

Time  runs  out (as shown by the  sands  of time slipping away  - 
see the egg-timer on  the  control panel) 

OR  

One of the ‘sides is decimated  -  reduced to just a couple of 
units 

At the games end (as notified by the computer) you will ‘be shown 
the  final positions of each side, using the strategic  map.  No victor 
is proclaimed by the computer. It is for you to decide whether any 
winner  emerged or whether there was simply a Phyrric victory. 

FIGHTING FOR ROME     
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
I. The Roman Empire 
The  Romans built one of the first,  and arguably  the  finest,  empire 
in history. Undoubtedly, they were very advanced, building 
extraordinarily  high  quality roads, heating buildings, and creating 
a sophisticated legal system. And of course,  their  armies were 
extremely strong and, unusually for the time, very  well- 
disciplined. 

Rome was an extraordinary  civilization for its time and despite 
many barbaric practices, has left   the  world considerably richer for 
it. Many modem languages, including English, are based heavily 
on Latin,  the  language of Rome. 

II. The Rise of the Roman Empire 
Technically, the Roman Empire was not an Empire until long 
after most  people  think.  Rome began as a republic,  which  was 
established in about 510 BC, with an extremely sophisticated
political  system.  Rome’s  territorial expansion  began early on, 
around 380 BC. 

In  common with    many  ancient  tribes at  this  time, Rome was  often 
at  war; Rome suffered a particularly bad defeat at the hands of 
the  Gauls in  387 BC when the city of Rome was largely destroyed. 
Afterwards,   the Romans  rebuilt their  city,  and developed a  more 
powerful army. With the help of another  tribe (the  Samnites),  they 
then  attacked and defeated all the other tribes  in their  area, and 
their  influence  began  to grow. 

Two series of wars, the  Samnite wars  (against their former ally) 
and the  Pyrrhic  Wars, enabled  Rome's  power to spread through 
out much of what is now Italy.     

The Pyrrhic wars were fought against Tarentum, a weak but rich 
commercial city. They bought the services of another kingdom’s
army to do their  fighting  -  King  Pyrrhus  of Epirus  (in Northern 
Greece).  During  the wars,  Pyrrhus’s  troops won a number of bat- 
tles, but doing so cost such great losses  that the  term Pyrrhic  vic- 
tory  arose. (A Pyrrhic victory is a victory that  is so costly that it is 
not worthwhile  winning).  Tarentum surrendered to Rome in 272 
BC. 

Rome managed  to combine  considerable  political  skill with its 
military  prowess. This meant that’ following  defeat,  conquered 
tribes became part of the Roman Republic,  --  on terms  set by 
Rome. These terms included supplying men for the Roman army,
and adopting Latin as the official language. Gradually, Rome was
conquering what is now known as Italy. 

The Carthaginians;  under the  leadership  of  Hannibal, had  also 
been expanding their own empire  in North  Africa  during this 
time.  Their sphere of influence did not yet overlap with Rome’s. 
The Punic Wars, though, broke out in 264 BC after the 
Carthaginians  invaded Messana. Southern Italian cities regarded 
as a direct threat. There were three Punic Wars with Rome win- 
ning the  first  in 241 BC following large naval battles. 

The second  Punic war started with Hannibal’s famous march 
through Spain, over the  Pyrenees,  through Prance, over the Alps, 
and into Italy. A remarkable journey at this time, Hannibal man- 
aged to transport a huge army, complete with elephants, all the
way to Italy. He then defeated the  Romans  in many battles.  Can- 
nae was the site of the largest battle of the war so far, as Hannibal 
defeated an entire Roman army!  Hannibal  then roamed Italy for 
the next 16 years,  winning  battles against  individual  towns  but 
never defeating the city of Rome. 

Desperate to   rid themselves of the  Carthaginian  army, the 
Romans  moved west and conquered  Spain;  from there they 
moved south into Carthage itself. Hannibal returned to Carthage 
but was defeated there by the Romans, who also  retained  Spain 
as part of the Republic. 
The third Punic war was won by Rome in 146 BC and ended  with 
the complete destruction of Carthage. Rome turned this into   their 
North African territory. Greece followed next. and shortly after 
this, Rome controlled the entire Mediterranean sea. 

During  this  expansion, there was enormous political rivalry ‘in 
Rome itself, spurred on by different factions of the Senate.  Cae- 
sar,  Sulla,  Marius,  Pompey and others all  tried,  with varying  suc- 
cess,  to rule as dictators between 123 BC and 44 BC. 

More political disputes followed until  Antony  and Octavian  agreed 
to share the control of the  territories.  Antony  ruled over Egypt 
and its surrounding territories, Octavian ruling the rest. This  did 
not  last, however, as  Octavian defeated  Antony  and became the 
first  Roman Emperor (though he did not use this title  himself).  He 
was known as Augustus  from then on and ruled until his death 
in AD 14. 

III. The Fall of the Roman Empire 
Augustus ruled well and brought stability to the Empire. He was 
followed by   Tiberius,  his step-son. Tiberius ruled well but became 
paranoid about being assassinated. As a result, he executed
many people as potential threats.  Tiberius was succeeded by 
Gaius, better known as Calligula, who was slightly mad: he 
claimed to be a  god, tried  to have a horse elected consul, married 
his  sister, murdered his sister and spent enormous amounts of 
money. He was murdered by the Praetorian Guard, the   unit  sup- 
posed to protect the Emperor. 

Other emperors followed for several hundred years. From about 
AD 400 onward, under   Honorius' rule, different  parts of the 
Empire came under increasing attack from other tribes. The 
Goths  in particular led many such attacks. Under the command 
of  Alaric  the Goths attacked Italy, defeated Rome. and rapidly 
spread  their  power throughout Italy. Barbarian tribes such as the 
Vandals,  Huns  and  Burgundians  joined the attacks.
Rome pulled back,   its forces  from  Britain, which it had conquered 
in 44 BC, and  tried to retain control. It was weakened, however, 
by a  series  of famines and diseases. Its people had also been 
increasingly  heavily taxed and so were less keen to preserve the 
society which taxed them. Gradually, the Empire in the west 
dwindled to nothing. 

IV.  The Roman Army 
The Roman Army was crucial to the success of the Empire, both 
to building  it and to maintaining it for so long. It was also ulti- 
mately the’ cause of the Roman Empire’s fall. As well as being
unusually large and  well-directed,  the Roman Army was. noted for 
its strong organizational structure.
In the early days of Rome’s expansion, up to around 200 BC, the 
army was broken down  into  Centuries: groups of soldiers of 100 
men, commanded by a Centurion. A number of centuries then 
formed a Legion, which usually had 4200 men. 

Marius, a Commander of the Roman army, later changed the 
structure and allowed non-land-owners to join the army. 

Under the new structure, centuries only had eighty men each and 
were  grouped into cohorts. Cohorts were now the  Romans'  main 
tactical unit. Cohorts usually consisted of six centuries  (480  men) 
and were grouped Into Legions. There were typically ten cohorts
to a Roman legion. One of these cohorts, known as the Prima 
Cohors,  was larger than the rest, having ten centuries instead of 
six: many of the extra people in it were non-fighting men, such as 
cooks or messengers. Each cohort consisted of two  maniples  of 
approximately 200 men each. 

This structure allowed for much tighter control to  be kept  on the 
soldiers,  which resulted in more precision during battle and bet- 
ter discipline. 

Commanding the army was a hierarchy of officers. A Centurion
commanded each century and reported to a  Tribunus Militum 
(the officer in charge of a cohort). Each legion  was  then com- 
manded by a senior officer, known as a Legatus. 

This structure is  similar  to that  still  used today, a cohort corm 
spending  roughly to the modem battalion and the maniple to the 
modem company. The legion is roughly equivalent to the modem
division. 

Unlike many previous armies, the Roman army also mastered   the 
art of fighting in formation, ranks or squares of soldiers fighting 
close together, rather than a rabble of men. This proved far more 
effective, as is particularly well demonstrated by the  tortoise for- 
mation  in which walls of shields were used to protect the forma- 
tion from arrows. Men in the middle of the square placed their
shields on top of their backs, forming a roof   against  enemy 
arrows. This enabled the square to approach enemy fortresses 
with  few  casualties. 

Cavalry were less useful than  infantry  at this time, since (the stir- 
rup not having been invented yet) riders needed to spend most of 
their time  trying to stay on the. horse, rather than fighting. 
Nonetheless, they were used in the Roman army. The cavalry
consisted not of Roman soldiers, but of auxilia. They  were less 
well paid soldiers who were often recruited locally, rather than 
brought  from  Rome. 

V. Roman Soldiers 
Roman  soldiers  were extremely well-trained and  fit.  Most of the  
people they fought were farmers who were fighting for their land. 
The  Romans  trained strenuously and endured very hardy fitness 
exercises at all times. Roman soldiers were, also paid, professional
soldiers. This not only made them fitter and more proficient fight- 
ers than many of their opponents it also made them much more 
used to lighting in their units. 

Roman soldiers had uniforms, consisting of an iron helmet,
chain-mail armor, red tunics and cloaks, the well-known curved , 
red shield (made out of leather on a wooden  frame,  rimmed with 
iron) and sandals. Their main weapon was a short sword which 
was about 6Ocm long. Also, each soldier carried two javelins as 
secondary weapons. 

VI. How the Romans fought  battles 
The Roman army evolved a particularly distinctive style of fight- 
ing, moving away from the traditional phalanx of  heavy infantry 
(or hoplites,  as used by  the Greeks)  supported  by cavalry and 
other troops. 

Unlike most other armies of the era, the  Romans  did not rely 
upon a long spear as  their  main weapon; other armies fought 
from behind a  wall.  of shields from which protruded long  (circa 
seven  feet)  spears. The  Romans  relied upon their sturdy shields 
for  defense  and used a short sword for offensive fighting. A 
Roman attack would typically consist of soldiers throwing  their
two javelins at the enemy and then charging immediately at them
to engage in hand-to-hand combat.

The Romans would normally deploy their army in three separate
lines. Each line would be six ranks deep and was sub-divided into
maniples. A gap would be left between each maniple in the line.
The gaps in the first line were covered by soldiers in the second
line and the gaps in the second were covered by soldiers from the
third. The third line usually comprised the older soldiers, who still
used the long spear rather than rely on the short sword. In an
attack, all three lines would advance together, so that if any gaps
arose, soldiers would be there from the second or third lines to
plug them.

Initially, the Romans made very scant use of cavalry. They
learned, however, from defeats at the hands of King Pyrrhus just
how effective “shock” tactics as employed by cavalry in Macedonian
armies could be. Hannibal also used the alternative “Macedonian”
style of warfare, as developed by Alexander the Great.

The battle of Trebia (218 BC) saw’ a Roman army fighting a
Carthaginian force of roughly the same size. The Carthaginians
though, had far more cavalry than the Romans and used them to
move swiftly around the Roman flanks and attack from the rear.
Hannibal won the battle.

Hannibal’s greater victory, however, was at Cannae. Shrewd use
of his mixed army (heavy cavalry, light and heavy infantry) gave
his army of 50,000 men victory over the 80,000 strong Roman
force. Unlike the Romans, who advanced in their three lines as
normal, Hannibal retained two columns of strong infantry for use
as a possible reserve. His intention was to surround the Roman
force once it had engaged the main Carthaginian line and then
attack from the rear. Once again, cavalry were used effectively for
this, and Hannibal won the day.

The Romans were to take their revenge, however, fourteen years
later at the battle of Zama. Led by Scipio, the Romans had cavalry
superiority which was used late in the battle to attack the rear of
Hannibal’s thinly spread infantry. This won the day for the
Romans. This battle was particularly significant, since it was the
first where both sides made use of reserve forces.

The organizational structure of the Roman forces was to prove
key to their continued successes. Each group of soldiers was able
to turn instantly to present a solid front against attack from any
side. The Macedonian phalanx, being larger and often consisting
of several rows of spears, was far more cumbersome... and vulnerable.

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